2

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER

Course Content:

UNIT- I: Understanding Growth and Development

(a) Human growth and development- concept, characteristics and difference of

growth and development.

(b) Principals and factors affecting growth and development.

(c) Stages of development- characteristics of different stages with special reference

to developmental characteristics, needs and problems of adolescence period.

UNIT- II: Learner as a Developing Individual

(a) Relevance and applicability of various theories of development- Piaget

(Cognitive), Erickson (Social), Kohlberg (Moral) and Vygotsky's theory

(Contextual).

(b) Heredity and Environment- meaning, laws of heredity and role of heredity and

environment in development, Nature-nurture debate.

(c) Human Diversity- nature and concept of human diversity, variations and

developmental components, causes and implications.

UNIT- III: Learner in Socio-Cultural Perspective

(a) Role of family, school and society in cognitive, affective and psychomotor

development of the children.

(b) Role of media (Printed and Electronic) on developmental aspects of children with

special reference to adolescents.

(c) Understanding development of self-concept from diverse aspects: Social,

Cultural, Community, Religion, Caste, Gender, Location, Language, Socioeconomic status and literacy of parents.

UNIT- IV: Group Behaviour-Implication for Teachers

(a) Group Dynamics- meaning, types of groups, factors of group behaviour and role

of teacher in promoting classroom as a cohesive group.

(b) Discipline- Developmental model, role of school, critical examination of

enforcement of discipline in Indian classrooms.

(c) Role of different methods of discipline in character education, truancy &drop-out.

UNIT- I: UNDERSTANDING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPT OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growing meaning – increase in size, height and weight. It implies growth of

heart, brain, muscle and body in general. It can generally be easily observed or

measured. According to Arnold Gessel, “Growth is the function of the organism

rather than of the environment. The environmental furnishes the soil and

surroundings for the manifestation of development, but these manifestations cane

from inherent inner organism and an intrinsic physiology of development. Growth is

a process so intricate and so sensitive that these must be powerful stabilizing

factors, intrinsic balance of the total pattern and direction of the growth trend”.

“Growth is intrinsic process which can be measured, observed and quantified. It is

dependent upon many factors like education, environment. It is not a continuous

and life long process. It starts with conception and continuous upto some particular

stage. It stops when the person attains maturity.

Meaning of Development

Development is a series of orderly progression of change towards maturity. It

refers to change in structures and improvement in functioning e.g. hands, legs do

not grow only large but they also develop because they improve in their functions.

Thus development can best be defined as a progression series of changes in an

orderly coherent pattern.

According to J.E. Anderson: “Development does not consist merely of adding

inches to one height or improving one” ability. Instead development is comp

plex

process of integrating many structures and functions.

EDU 02- DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER

 

Unit:1

BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

 

Group Members

1. Maneesha C. Thomas

2. Nufaila P

3. Thahseena V.V

 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

● An understanding of the nature and principles of human growth and development is very essential for the realization of the aims and objectives of education.

● To stimulate and direct physical, social, emotional and intellectual growth and development of the students

Meaning of Growth

● Means increase in size, height and weight of the child

● Growth of heart, brain, muscles and body in general.

● Can be easily observed and measured

● Quantitative changes

 

● Growth refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes in terms of height, weight, body proportions and general physical appearance.

● In Encyclopedia Britannica, growth is defined as “an increase in size or the amount of an entity”.

● It means growth involves all those structural and physiological changes that take place within individual during the process of maturation. For example, growth of a child means the increase in weight, height and different organs of the child’s body.

 

Definitions of Growth

● “Change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new ones”. - Elizebath Hurlock.

● "Growth refers to structural and physiological changes . Thus, growth refers to an increase in physical size of whole or any of its part and can be measured.” - Crow and Crow.

 

Development- Concept and Definitions

● Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole.

● Development is a continuous process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur.

● It is a more wider and comprehensive term than growth.

● It is also possible without growth.

● Refers to change in structure, form or shape and improvement in functioning.

● Can be defined as a progressive series of changes in an orderly coherent pattern.

● Progressive changes are directional leading forward rather than backward

● Changes include change in size, proportions, disappearance of old features and acquisitions of new features at physical, social, emotional and intellectual aspects.

 

Definitions of Development

● “The series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an embryonic stage to maturity. - Webster’s dictionary

● Development is continuous and gradual process -Skinner.

● "Development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behavior which results from environmental situation.” -Crow and Crow (1965)

 

Comparison of Growth and Development

● Growth refers to physiological changes.

● Development refers to overall changes in the individual. It involves changes in an orderly and coherent type towards the goal of maturity.

● Changes in the quantitative respect is termed as growth

● Development changes in the quality along with quantitative aspect

● Growth does not continue throughout life.

● Development continues throughout life.

● Growth stops after maturation.

● Development is progressive.

● Growth occurs due to the multiplication of cells.

● Development occurs due to both maturation and interaction with the environment.

● Growth is cellular.

 

● Development is organizational.

● Growth is one of the part of the developmental process.

● Development is a wider and comprehensive term

● Growth may be referred to describe the changes in particular aspects of the body and behavior of the organism.

● Development describes the changes in the organism as a whole

● The changes produced by growth are subjects of measurements. They may be quantified and observable in nature.

● Development brings qualitative changes which are difficult to measure directly. They are assessed through keen observation of behavior in different situations.

● Growth may or may not bring development.

● Development is possible without growth.

 

Factors Influencing Development

Biological

❑ Intelligence : intelligent child acquires new behaviour

quickly and attains maturation early

❑ Sex : at birth boys are slightly larger but girls grow rapidly

❑ Glands : deficiency in the activity of thyroid glands during the early years stunts the growth both physical and mental T hymus glands influence the growth of the chest as well as mental development

❑ Race : Influence on height, weight, colour, feature and body constitution

 

Environmental

❑ Air and sunlight : The body size of an individual as well as his health conditions are favorably influenced by fresh air and sunlight.

❑ Nutrition : Malnutrition has adverse effect on one’s structural and functional development. Balanced diet is very essential for the proper development of the child.

❑ Disease and injuries : Body injuries and other types of long term diseases have adverse effect on the development of children.

❑ Social and cultural factors : The style of behaviour of a child is greatly influenced by the social and cultural environment in which it lives.

❑ Family status : A poor family may face difficulties to provide balanced diet to their children. This will affect their physical development adversely.

❑ Position in the family : The last child is often too much babied and hence he is likely to be slow, especially in emotional development. The second and third children develop more quickly than the first as the younger children have sometime to imitate.

 

Principles of Development

● Development is a product of interaction- it is the product of interaction of the organisms with environment. It is the resultant of internal physiological changes and the psychological process.

● Development is a continuous process- womb to tomb and never ceases. Cannot accurately demarcate infancy from childhood or childhood from adolescence. But the shift from one stage to next is not always smooth and gradual.

● Rate of growth and development is not uniform- rapid in early years but slow down in later years of childhood, again at puberty sudden rise.

 

● Development follows an orderly sequence- individual show high degree of similarity in the order in which various development appear. Almost all children learn to stand before walk begin to babbling before speaking.

● Development is an individualized process- grows at his own unique pace. Has his own rate of development.

● Development proceeds from general to specific responses- newborn infants cries, the whole body is involved with growth the crying is limited to the vocal cords, eyes etc

 

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Different Stages of Development:

1. Pre natal period - from conception to 280 days/birth

2. Infancy - birth to 3 years

3. Early childhood - 3-6 years

4. Later childhood - 6-12 years

5. Adolescence - 12-19 years

6. Adulthood - 19-60 years

7. Old Age - beyond 60 years

 

1. PRE NATAL PERIOD

● It extends from conception to birth, normally 280 days.

● The development during this period is very rapid, orderly & predictable.

● Psychologists divided Pre natal period into 3 stages:

a) Germinal Period - from conception to the end of 2nd week.

b) Embryonic Period - from the end of 2nd week to the end of 2nd month.

c) Foetal Period - from the end of 2nd month until birth.

● Child’s growth during pregnancy is characterized by 2 types of development - Structural & Functional

● During this period the developing organism is dependent upon the mother for digestion, excretion, respiration, maintenance of body temperature.

● Factors like mother’s health, food, emotional experiences, certain desires etc. influences the baby.

 

2. INFANCY

● From birth to 3 years.

● The 1st 2 weeks is known as period of neonate or the new-born.

● The period from 3rd week to the end of 3 years is known as babyhood.

● Physical & Motor Development – Boys grow faster than girls. They increase 25cm in 1st year & 12.5cm during 2nd year.

● Emotional Development – Emotions like anger, disgust, fear, affection etc. are developed.

● Intellectual Development – Child is able to perform all functions like seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching etc.

● Social & Moral Development – Mother is the1st and best friend and socializer. Father and siblings are the next in position.

● Language Development – Starts from birth cry. Ten month old child is able to use 1 word. By the end of 1year uses 3 or 4 words.

 

3. EARLY CHILDHOOD (Pre-School

Stage)

● Between age 3 -6.

● Referred also as Toy age, Problem age, Pre-gang age.

● Physical & Motor Development - Acquire motor skills like crawling, jumping, walking, running, climbing, kicking, catching, throwing etc.

● Emotional Development – Emotional behavior is further differentiated into shame, anxiety, envy, hope, disappointment and affection for parents and other members of the family.

● Intellectual Development – Child learns reading and writing through play activities.

● Social Development – Family is the primary social milieu. 2nd comes the neighbourhood. Behavior like co-operation, sympathy, social approval, bullying, teasing, quarrelling etc. are developed.

● Language Development – Rapid increase in vocabulary. Words are combined into phrases & sentences, simple thoughts are communicated with ease.

 

4. LATER CHILDHOOD (Primary School Stage)

● From 6-12 years.

● Also referred as gang age, age of conformity, latency period etc.

● Physical & Motor Development – 1st teeth are replaced by permanent ones. Bones become harder. Height & weight increases.

● Emotional Development – Learns to control emotional expression in social situations.

● Intellectual Development –Develops powers of observation, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking. Learns the 3 R’s –reading, writing, arithmetic.

● Social Development – Further increase in social traits like co-operation & team spirit. Become increasingly independent of parents.

 

5. ADOLESCENCE (Secondary School Stage)

● From 12-19 years.

● Known as period of transition because during this period an individual is neither a child nor an adult.

● Physical & Motor Development

In boys, voice deepens and become harsher. Hairs appear on upper limbs and face. Genital organs increases in size.

In girls, voice becomes shrill and sweet during adolescence. Growth of breasts and widening of pelvis takes place. Girls begin to menstruate.

Hair in armpits and around genital organs appear in both boys and girls. The whole body of adolescent acquires revolutionary changes and both boys and girls attain all the sex characteristics during this period.

 

● Emotional Development –

During adolescence, the emotional development reaches its final form. It is a period of emotional instability and intensity. Emotions fluctuate very frequently and quickly. Self consciousness, self respect and personal pride will be too strong in adolescents.

● Intellectual Development –

During adolescence, the intellectual development reaches its climax.

Intellectual powers like critical thinking, logical thinking and abstract reasoning develop. They develop fine imagination. The areas of interest widens.

● Social & Moral Development –

The most characteristic social development during adolescence is the increased influence of peer group. Adolescents develop a good amount of social sense. They want to mould their behavior according to the norms of the society. During adolescence the individual becomes very conscious about sex.

 

6. ADULTHOOD

● From 19 – 60 years

● Longest of all stages.

● An average adult will be normally self reliant and will decide and act independently.

● Develops attitude & character traits which as expected for adults of social status.

 

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

The following are the major aspects which contribute to the total development of a child.

1. Physical and Motor Development

2. Cognitive Development

3. Emotional Development

4. Social Development

5. Moral Development

6. Language Development

 

Part A (Each question carries 2 marks)

1. Who is an adolescent?

2. Name any 4 principles of development?

3. Differentiate between growth and development?

4. What are the different stages of development?

5. What are the major aspects that contribute to the development of an individual?

 

Part B (Each question carries 4 marks)

1. Elucidate any four principles of development? Why teacher should focus principles of development?

 

Unit 2

DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT ACROSS DIFFERENT STAGES

 

Group members

1. Akhil Balaraj

2. Anjana M

3. Divya Reji Philip

 

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• External physical developments is characterised by increase in height, weight, change in body proportion etc..

• Internal developments takesplace in respiratory system, blood circulation, nerve system, digestive system, reproductive system etc..

• Adolescence physical development is noticed by changes in body proportions

Changes in boys :

• Male sexual characteristics ,broader shoulders , broader trunk and Growth of muscles

• Growth of hair in armpits and pubic area and appearance of facial hair

• Larges stomach and Heart grows rapidly and mature sex organs

 

Changes in Girls :

• Female sexual characteristics, broader hips, fast growth especially in breast, hips

• Growth of hair in armpits, pubic area ,etc.

• Larges stomach and Heart grows rapidly

• Mature sex organs

 

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Motor development can be said to indicate the increase of strength and co-ordination of the muscular mechanism as a whole

Characteristic features

⮚ Strength

⮚ Speed

⮚ Accuracy

⮚ Coordination in muscular movement

 

Motor development at various stages

• Childhood marked by a fairly uniform rate of improvement in the speed of voluntary movements

• Development of skills in motor performance ,exhibits a progressive trend throughout childhood

• Motor behaviour involved in complex skills get perfection at a rapid rate during adolescence

• Maturation and practice are the most essential requirements for proper motor development at all stages

 

Fine Motor Developments

● By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands.

● They can build towers out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen.

● 2 to 3 year-olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other, which is the beginning

of becoming left or right-handed.

● Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves

 

● 3 to 4 year- old continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons.

● During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills.

● 5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles

 

Upper Primary School Children

● Lower primary children show relatively slow physical development

● The girls tend to be slightly shorter and lighter than the boys until around the age of 9

● Height and weight tend to be approximately equal for boys and girls

● UP students healthier than those younger to them.

● They have better resistance to fatigue and disease

● Motor coordination is better than that of seven or eight years old children

● Latter part of the fourth grade many girls begin a sudden growth that tends to continue till puberty

● Growth in the trunk size not proportionate

● Arms and legs grow rapidly

 

● Bone growth occurs before the growth of associated muscles and cartilages

● Girls of this age group experience pre-puberty developments like breast budding and traces of pubic hair

● Limbs grow in early maturing females

● Most girls on the completion of 5th grade look taller, heavier and stronger than boys

● Boys remain twelve to eighteen months behind the girls in physical development

● Girls usually start their menstrual periods by the age of thirteen

● For boys the end of pre-adolescence and the onset of early adolescence as identified by the first ejaculation occurs around 13

 

Secondary and senior secondary

● Adolescence begins with puberty

● Early adolescence is a period of rapid physical and intellectual development

● Middle adolescence is a more stable period of adjustment

● Later adolescence is marked by preparations for the responsibilities, choices and opportunities of adulthood

 

Major changes during adolescence

● Variability in onset and rate of puberty

● Puberty is a series of physiological changes that make the organism capable of reproduction

● Nearly every organ and system of the body is affected by these changes.

● Directly related physical development that adolescents must face is the consciousness of sexual identity

● It includes the expression of sexual needs and feelings and the acceptance or rejection of sex roles

● The sequence of events at puberty is same for each person

● But the timing and the rate of weight gain vary widely

● The average girl typically begins pubertal changes around 11 years 1.5 to 2 years before the average boy

 

Reactions to puberty

● Most important challenge adolescents have to face is to adapt to the changes in their bodies

● The new developments in body must be integrated into the existing self image.

● New habits have to be developed

● Adolescents become more like adults in appearance.

● The purpose of puberty is to make people able to reproduce. Thus the adolescent is faced with a new potential that includes increased interest in sexual activity, erotic fantasy and experimentation

● Early and late maturing

● Early maturers have harder time at puberty

● They experience more anxiety and have more temper tantrums, more conflict with their parents and lower self esteem.

● Late maturers are still experiencing pubertal changes

 

General developmental trends

1. Mass to specific trend :

- Mass reaction to more specific

2. Larger muscles to smaller muscles :

- Earlier all the fingers are used to pick up an object

- Later only the smaller muscles of the thump and the forefinger applied

3. Cephalo-caudal and Proximo-distal trend :

- Head to foot and central to periphery

- Motor control and coordination develop first in the head region

- Then it proceeds down to the arms, hands and upper part of the trunk

- And finally to the legs and feet

 

4. Bilateral to unilateral trend :

- In early stage no preference towards right-left distinction is noticed in the use of hands, legs, ears, eyes and jaws

- Gradually preference to one directions takes place

5. Maximum to minimum muscular involvement :

- Extent of muscular involvement

- Amount of muscular strength applied

 

Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development

● The traits and characteristics inherited at the time of conception

● Single birth or multiple births.

● The physical as well as mental health of the mother during pregnancy.

● Normal or abnormal delivery.

● Conditions and care at the time of delivery.

● Look after of the baby and its mother.

● Nutrition received by the child after birth

 

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

 

• According to Piaget’s ,cognitive development is the result of continuous interaction between the organism and environment.

• Based upon the nature of this interaction ,Piaget has divided cognitive development into four well defined stages.

• They are :

sensori-motor stage pre-operational stage

concrete operational stage formal operational stage

 

 

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 yrs)

- Infancy

• Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor actions (reaching, touching).

• Develop Object Permanence (memory) - Realize that objects exist even if they are out of sight.

• Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to the beginning of problem solving (intellectual) and symbolic abilities (language) toward the end of this stage.

 

Preoperational stage (2-7 yrs) - Toddler and Early Childhood

• This stage begins when the child starts to use symbols and language. This is a period of developing language and concepts. So, the child is capable of more complex mental representations (i.e. words and images). He is still unable to use 'operations', i.e. logical mental rules, such as rules of arithmetic. This stage is further divided into 2 sub- stages :

• Preconceptual stage (2-4 yrs) : Increased use of verbal representation but speech is egocentric. The child uses symbols to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real baby or the child role plays mummy or daddy.

• Intuitive stage (4-7 yrs) : Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. Here the child base their knowledge on what they feel or sense to be true, yet they cannot explain the underlying principles behind what they feel or sense.

 

The following are the key features of this stage :

• Egocentrism: The child's thoughts and communications are typically egocentric (i.e, about themselves or their own point of view). Eg.: "if i can't see you, you also can't see me". It is the inability to see the world from anyone else's eyes. It is well explained by Piaget as Three Mountain Task.

• Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. Eg.: children dressing and feeding their dolls as if they are alive.

• Concentration: The process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. It is noticed in Conservation. Conservation on the other hand is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation.

 

Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) - Childhood and Early Adolescence

The concrete operational stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage are :

• Seriation: The ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape or any other characteristic. Eg.: if given different-sized objects, they may place them accordingly.

• Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order. Eg.: if A is taller than B and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C.

• Classification: The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. The child also begins to get the idea that one set can include another. Eg.: there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs.

 

• Decentring: The ability to take multiple adpects of a situation into account. Eg.: the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally- wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.

• Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. Eg.: the child will rapidly determine that if 4+4=8 then 8-4=4, the original quantity.

• Conservation: Understanding that the quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or item.

• Elimination of Egocentrism: The ability to view things from another's perspective.

• The child performs operations: combining, separating, multiplying, repeating, dividing etc

 

Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs & above)

- Adolescence and Adulthood

• The thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e, can carry out systematic experiments.

• The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodological way.

• Understands that nothing is absolute; everything is relative.

• Develops skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning as well as inductive reasoning and systematic planning etc.

• Understands that the rules of any game or social system are developed by a man by mutual agreement and hence could be changed or modified.

• The child's way of thinking is at its most advanced, although the knowledge it has to work with, will change.

 

Bruner’s Stages of Cognitive Development

 

• According to Bruner the outcome of cognitive development is thinking.

• According to Bruner (1960), effective learning occurs when students acquire a general understanding of a subject; that, when they understand the structure of a subject, they see it as a related whole. According to Bruner, mind organises knowledge in a hierarchical fashion, with the more general, all encompassing ideas at the top of hierarchy, and the more concrete, factorial ideas toward the bottom.

• Bruner believes that important outcomes of learning include not only just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously in the culture, but also the ability to “invent” these things for one’s self.

• According to Bruner, one’s intellectual ability evolves as a result of maturation, training and experiences through a series of three sequential stages –the enactive ,iconic and symbolic.

 

Enactive Stage

Knowledge is primarily stored in the form of motor responses. This is not just limited to children. A baby represents world through actions - Our knowledge for motor skills (eg riding a bike) are represented in the enactive mode. They become automatic through repetition

• Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks such as typing, sewing etc.

Iconic Stage

Knowledge is stored primarily in the form of visual images. knowledge represented through visual or auditory images – icons. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information

 

Symbolic Stage

Knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or into other symbol systems. Major change at 6/7 yrs – language starts to influence thought. Not so dominated by appearance of things children can think beyond images and use symbols such as words or numbers.

 

Bruner’s theory - key points

• Development involves mastery of increasingly more complex modes of thinking from enactive to Symbolic

• As skills learned they become automatic and become units that can be combined to build up a new set of skilled behaviours

• Learning not a gradual process

• Stresses role of language & interpersonal communication.

• Emphasizes need for active involvement by experts.

• Instruction = essential part of learning process in natural and educational settings.

 

Development of emotions , attitudes & values

● Adolescent emotional development is often characterized by rapidly fluctuating emotions, which are simply the result of adolescents' "overreaction" to stress

● Important Emotions in Child hood includes fear, worry, anger,

temper tantrum, jealousy, affection and happiness

● Emotions in Childhood varies in its intensity, briefness, transitoriness and frequency

● It will be easily detectable and usually emotions are expressed through motor responses

 

Childhood Emotional Development

● Irrational emotions- emotions that are in tension with our evaluative judgements like, taking offense or becoming angry about a situation that has not yet occurred

● Peer group relationship starts here

● School atmosphere also influences the childhood emotional development

● Stability and control during the later childhood

 

Adolescence Emotional Development

● Period of intensive storm and stress

● Emotional energy is as strong and dangerous

● Intense, uncontrolled and irrational emotions are also here

● The sudden functioning of sexual glands and tremendous increase in physical energy makes them restless.

● Refusing to speak or loudly criticizing

● Romance starts here

Contd…

 

● Worry about future

● Adolescents characteristically tended to over-react to everyday situations

● Social relationships outside the family have exponentially increased with the advent of electronic social networking

● Academic standards have become more stringent

● Sports and other recreational pursuits are more competitive

 

Attitude

● An emotional readiness to behave in a particular way

● Leads one to think, feel or act positively or negatively toward a person, idea or event

● Everyone of us has attitude.

● It can be good, bad, or indifferent and can change hourly, daily, weekly or monthly.

● As we mature we are supposed to control our attitude so that we can function and be a responsible citizen.

● Teenagers have been branded for their “bad attitudes”.

● The reality is that they are learning who they are, what to do with their talents and how to handle their emotions.

● We should give them a break and help them reach the right attitude.

 

How Attitudes Are Formed

1. Socialization

● Process through which people are integrated into a society by exposure to actions and opinions of others

● Family is important in early years

2. Peer groups

● People in same age

● Have powerful influence on attitude formation during adolescence

● Influence can be stronger than parents, teachers or other adults

3. Reference groups

● Several people who share a common interest

● Tend to influence each other’s behavior

Contd…

 

● More influential than peer groups during young adulthood

● Point of comparison and source of information

4. Rewards and Punishment

● Attitudes developed to minimize punishment and maximize rewards

● Organizations use these to encourage or discourage certain attitudes

5. Role Model Identification

● A role model is someone that you admire or are likely to emulate:

● Parents and relatives, people from TV or movies, people at work

● Can exert considerable influence

● Supervisors are important

● Organizations should pay more attention to what supervisors do than what they say.

Contd…

 

6. Cultural Influences

● Total of knowledge, beliefs, values, and customs that we use to adapt to our environment

● People define themselves differently in different cultures

● Includes both tangible and intangible

● Organizations should strive to create positive corporate culture

 

Value development

We are not born with certain values, there are three periods during which values are developed as we grow.Sociologist Morris Massey has described three major periods

1. The Imprint Period (Upto age of 7)

● Here we are like sponges, absorbing everything around us and accepting much of it as true, especially when it comes from our parents.

● The confusion and blind belief of this period can also lead to the early formation of trauma and other deep problems.

● The critical thing here is to learn a sense of right and wrong, good and bad.

 

2. The Modeling Period (Between 8 and 13)

● Here we copy people, often our parents, but also others.

● Rather than blind acceptance of their values, we are trying them on like a suit of clothes, to see how they feel.

● At this age we may be much impressed with religion or our teachers.

● You may remember being particularly influenced by junior school teachers who seemed so knowledgeable--maybe even more so than your parents.

3. The Socialization Period (Between 13 and 21)

● Here we are very largely influenced by our peers.

● As we develop as individuals and look for ways to get away from the earlier programming, we naturally turn to people who seem more like us.

● Other influences at these ages include the media, especially those parts which seem to resonate with our the values of our peer groups.

 

Theory of psycho-

sexual development- Sigmund Freud

 

✔All physical pleasure is sexual in nature

✔Sexuality is not the only characteristic of the adult

✔Children from the very beginning have also sexual desires it is called Infantile Sexuality

✔A child passes through five stages of psycho sexual development

✔According to Freud sex is the life urge or fundamental motive in life

Stages are ;

1 3 5

2 4

 

1. Oral stage - birth to 2 years

● Mouth is the erogenous zone.

● Infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, sucking, biting etc..

● During this the child derives pleasure from oral stimulation arising from food and the fondling of mouth by other people

● If fixated in future would become obsessed with activities such as eating, drinking or smoking

● Psychologically may become extremely dependent or gullible, argumentativeness, cynicism, sarcasm etc.

 

2 . Anal stage - 2 to 3 years

● Sexual pleasure is focused on the anal zone.

● Child achieves gratification through retention and expulsion of faeces

● Parents seek to control through toilet training

● Problems due to toilet training –excessive repulsion of faeces, constipation

● If fixated may become overly concerned with extreme cleanliness, psychologically may be excessively stingy , orderly or obstinate

 

3. Phallic stage - 3 to 5 years

● Pleasure is focused on the genital region and derived through fondling the genital organs

● Child learns the difference between male and female and become aware of sexuality

● They develop sensual feelings towards the parent of the opposite sex

● Oedipus complex is formed in the male child as a result of his sexual desire towards his mother

● Electra complex is developed in the female child

● Castration anxiety, penis envy

● If fixated may result in homosexuality or an excessive concern with proving one’s masculinity in the male

● In female might result in an attempt to prove that she is equal to or superior to men in all endeavors

 

4 . Latency stage – 6 to 12

● It is a dormant period

● Temporary repression of sexual interests and pleasure is derived from external world

● Sexual instincts were sublimated into more acceptable activity such as school work and extra curricular endeavors

 

5 . Genital stage – adolescence and above

● Pleasure is derived from mature sexual relations with a partner of opposite sex.

● Here growing adolescents shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex

 

Social Development

● Interacting with others, having relationships with family, friends, and teachers, cooperating, and responding to the feelings of others

Childhood Social Development

● Greater degree of social awareness, child begins to adjust with others, interest in playmates

● Peer group influences his behaviour and attitudes and tries to seek independence from his parents and other elders and spends less time with them. Find separation among boys and girls

● The interests and values of the peer group often clashes with teachers and parents.

● The child is anxious to win the love and affection of his parents as well as teachers. The gang life develops here and contributes many good and bad social qualities in a child.

 

Adolescence Social Development

● Dominated by sexual needs and desires.

● Cooperation reaches its peak and friendly relationships increases

● Social contacts get widened

● He feels strongly for the weak and suffers and highly critical of social evils and injustice

● By the end of this stage, the social behaviour of the child becomes almost mature

● Some of the theories emphasize the importance of the family for the student’s social development, some others on social environment.

● The theory of commitment of the theorist John Bowbly emphasises the importance of early relationship with parents and also on social relationships in the whole life

 

● The theory of social learning of Albert Bandura emphasises the importance of influences of the environment on the social development of students.

● Socio-cultural theory of Lev Vygotsky- belongs to the early theories of social constructivism according which for the development of more cognitive functions social environment in which the child acquires experiences is important.

● Parents and teachers should serve as good models.

● School must teach the child what is right and what is wrong and persuade him to act as society expects and teacher should take necessary steps to develop a positive self concept in children.

● Teacher should stress moral qualities like love, sacrifice, self- control, truthfulness etc.

 

Theory of Psycho-Social Development

- Erik H Erikson

 

✔ Psychosocial dilemma: Conflict between personal impulses and the social world

✔ Crisis – a turning point, a time when both potential and vulnerability are generally increased

✔ Erikson used the term "crisis" to describe a series of internal conflicts that are linked to developmental stages. According to Erikson's theory, the way a person resolves the crisis will determine their personal identity and future development.

✔ Personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

✔ During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis

✔ which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

 

8 Stages of Development

1. Trust Vs Mistrust – Infancy 0-1years Ego strength : Hope

Important event : care, feeding, etc.

2. Autonomy Vs Shame – Early childhood 1-3 year Ego strength : Will

Important event : Toilet training

3. Initiative Vs Guilt – Play age 3-6 years

Ego strength : Purpose Important event : Exploration

Contd…

 

4. Industry Vs Inferiority – School age 6-12 years

Ego strength : Competence Important event : School

5. Identity Vs Identity Diffusion – Adolescence 12-20 years

Ego strength : Fidelity (sense of self) Important event : Social relationship

6. Intimacy Vs Isolation – Early adulthood 20-30 years Ego strength : Love

Important event : Love, relationship

Contd…

 

7. Generativity Vs stagnation –

Adulthood (middle adulthood) 30-65 years Ego strength : Care

Important event : Work and parenthood

8. Integrity Vs Despair –

Mature age (later adulthood) 65 and above Ego strength : Wisdom

Important event : Wisdom

 

Concept of Morality

• Derived from the Latin word mores meaning manners, customs and folk ways.

• Morality refers to “ a set of principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong and to act on this distinction”(Shaffer, 1993).

• Morality principle guide how people should treat one another, with respect to justice, others rights and welfare.

 

• Morality is the sense of right or wrong

• Socialized individual will be a person with good moral character.

 

Characteristics of Moral Development

● Significant aspect of personality

● Proceeds along with social development

● Moral development is a being matter of caught rather than taught

● Individual diffferences in moral development

● Moral development is different in all ages

 

Kohlberg’s Theory

● Heinz dilemma

● Moral development takes place along a number of sequential stages

● Identified six stages that fall into three fundamentally different levels of moral orientation.

 

Preconventional Level (4 to 10 years)

● Stage 1: The stage of obedience for avoiding punishments

⮚ Obey their parents to avoid punishment

● Stage 2 : The stage of conformity to satisfy needs

⮚ Obey the orders of elders because it will help them to satisfy their needs

 

Conventional Level (10 to 13 years)

● Stage 3 : The Stage of conformity to group norms

⮚ Desire to obtain approval of other members of the group

⮚ They do not decide themselves what is right or wrong but follow norms provided by the members of the group

● Stage 4 : The Stage of conformity to rules in society

⮚ Children follow the rules of the society and take decisions about things as being right or wrong

 

Post Conventional Level (13 and beyond)

● Stage 5 : The stage of conformity to the democratically accepted laws and mores

⮚ Think in rational terms valuing the rights of human beings and welfare of society

● Stage 6 : The stage of conformity to the universal ethical principles

⮚ Moral judgement is now based upon conscience and the belief in universal principles of equality.

 

Language Development

❖ A major feature that distinguishes the human beings from animals is their ability to use language

❖ Language helps to communicate ideas to others

❖ Language helps in formation of concepts

❖ Language helps in the analysis of complex ideas

❖

❖ Language helps us to focus attention on ideas which would otherwise be difficult to keep in mind.

 

LAD (Language Acquisition Device)

● Noam Chomsky put forth an idea called the LAD

● Children are born with a powerful language acquisition device

● LAD is a hypothetical tool in the brain that helps children quickly understand language

● Children are born with an understanding of the rules of language, they simply need to acquire the vocabulary

● Children seem to understand that all sentences should have the structure ‘subject-verb-object’ even before they are able to speak in full sentences

 

Noam Chomsky’s views on Language Development

• Noam Chomsky is an American philosopher, theorist, Cognitive Scientist, and Linguist

• Chomsky’s theory is based on the idea that all children are born with the innate ability to learn any human language

• Based on Chomsky’s theory all children have a LAD, The LAD’s job is to encode into a child’s brain the major principles of language and grammatical structure of the language

• Behaviour acquired is reinforced by environment in one way or other

 

Main Ideas of Chomsky

● The ‘speaker’ and the ‘hearer’ can construct innumerable sentences and understand them

● Language is a competency that is unique for man

● A child begins language learning even at two years of age. By about five the child learns the essential grammatical procedures of its mother tongue. He normally commits no mistake in ‘tense’ even if nobody teaches it.

● The language that the child gets familiarised with may be limited or incomplete but what he gives out is not merely he has already been made familiar with

● Different language possess certain universal common characteristics

● The child’s language learning takes place faster during the age of 2-12 yrs

 

Vygotsky’s views on Language Development

Role of private speech in Language Development

● He argues that language in the form of private speech(often talk to themselves as they play) guides cognitive development.

● The use of private speech is peak up at around 5 to 7 years and generally disappears by 9 years of age

● Vygotsky considers this transition from audible private speech to silent inner speech as fundamental process in cognitive development

● Knowledge is constructed by the learner through social interactions.

 

Vygotsky’s Stages of language Development

Stage Characteristics

Primitive Speech stage Non-intellectual or thoughtless speech

Naïve psychological Speech stage Correct use of language structures without the understanding of their logical meaning

Ego centric Speech stage The use of external signs as aids in the solution of internal problems

In-growth Speech stage Ability to manipulate thoughts using soundless speech

 

Development of Speech

● Child adopts various means to communicate

● Crying, babling, gestures and then formal symbolic language

● As the child grows sound making behaviour is reinforced

● By one year, child might have internalised only about 3 words. The vocabulary increases to nearly 300 words by two years,1000 by three years and to 2000 by the end of five years

● The order of priority in language learning must be listening

,speaking ,reading and writing

 

Speech defects

Incorrect speech habits developed by the individual on account of slow maturation or ineffective learning.

1. Lisping : Child finds it difficult to pronounce certain words correctly.

It involves change of sound of letters and words

2. Slurring : Caused by running words together, by which the child is unable to pronounce correctly

3. Stuttering and Stammering : In stuttering the child pronounces the same letter repeatedly while pronouncing a word. In stammering he fails to produce any sound for sometime which results in embrassing types gestures and facial expressions.

 

Part A (Each question carries 2 marks)

1. What is Cephalocaudal ?

2. What is meant by motor development ?

3. State the features of preconventional stage of moral development ? 4.Write any two characteristics of conventional level of morality, according to

kholberg .

5. List out any two characteristics of post-conventional level of morality, according to kholberg.

6. What are the processes involved in the organisation of schemas according to Piaget ?

7. Describe Erikson’s stages of Psycho-social development.

8. Describe the characteristics of motor development during infancy period.

 

Part B (Each question carries 4 marks)

1. Describe the characteristics of motor development during infancy period?

2. What are speech defects ? List out any two major speech defects ?

3. Write a short note on Chomsky’s theoretical contribution on

language development ?

4. Which are the stages of Psycho-social development according to Erikson ?

 

Part C (Each question carries 10 marks)

1. Bringout the basic assumptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

2. Describe the psycho-sexual stages of personality development according to Sigmund Freud

 

Unit 3

TASKS AND HAZARDS OF DEVELOPMENT

 

Group Members

1. Rahma.p

2. Nourin sharaf.

 

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Concept of developmental tasks

❑ The tasks which help the individual for the successful adjustment in the society are known as developmental tasks.

❑ Havighurst has given shape to a specific task model of development. According to him, at each new stage of development there are certain tasks, skills, attitudes and understandings that must be met before a person can move on to a higher level of development.

❑ He says, "Developmental task is a task which arises at a certain period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual,disapproval by the society and difficulty with later tasks."

 

Developmental tasks and educational planning

❑ Individuals who fail in the developmental tasks will be unhappy. The causes for the failure are lack of learning, opportunities and motivation. Hence, teachers should be careful in providing learning opportunities and motivation to their pupils in order to enable them to succeed in developmental tasks.

❑ The concept of developmental task is helpful in planning the

process of education, in two ways. First, it helps in discovering and stating the purposes of education in schools.

❑ Second, it helps the timing of educational efforts. When the mind

and body are ripe and when the self is ready to achieve a certain task, that will be the teachable moment.

 

Developmental needs of various stages

There are three forces from which different kinds of developmental tasks arise. They are

1. physical maturation

2. cultural pressure of society, and

3. personal values and aspirations.

The tasks like learning to walk arises from the first force, tasks like to read arises from the second force, and tasks like choosing and preparing for a vocation develops

from the third force

 

Developmental tasks serve three very useful purposes. They are:

1. Guidelines to the individual to know what society expect from him at a given stage

2. Show the individual what lies ahead and what they will be expected to do they reach their next stage of development, and

3. Helpful to the teacher to be prèpared to avail the opportuity and preparing appropriate atmosphere to achieve a developmental task.

 

Developmental tasks of different stages

Havighurst has given a list of tasks at various stages of development. Development tasks of children at the preschool stage, primary school stage and secondary school stage have been enumerated below.

 

A. Developmental tasks of preschool stage.

1. Learning to walk

2. Learning to talk and respond

3. Learning to eat solid food and drink water and milk

4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes

5. Learning sex - differences

6. Achieving physiological stability

7. Forming simple concepts of social and physical realities

8. Learning to establish emotional relationship with parents, siblings and other people

9. Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing conscience

10. Differentiate between good task and bad task

 

B. Developmental tasks of primary school stage

1. Acquiring physical skills necessary for ordinary games

2. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism

3. Learning get along with age -mates

4. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine roles

5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and

6. Developing calculating concepts necessary for

7. everyday living Developing conscience, morality and values

8. Achieving the sense of personal

9. Developing independence attitudes towards social groups and

10. Developing institutions values and beliefs related to life

 

C. Developmental tasks of secondary school

1. Achieving stage new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes

2. Taking up masculine or feminine roles in performing tasks

3. Achieving assurance of economic independence

4. Adjusting with one's physique and using the body effectively

5. Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults 6.Selecting and preparing for an occupation

7. Preparing for marriage and family life

8. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competency

9. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour 10.Acquiring a set of values as a guide to behaviour according to the norms of society.

 

HAZARDS OF DEVELOPMENT

Hazards of development

● Each phase of development has its hazards. Each period in the life span has associated with it certain developmental hazards and these inevitably involve adjustment problems.

● The way in which people cope with these hazards have a great effect their personal and social adjustments.

● It is essential that teachers be aware of the hazards commonly associated with each period in the life span. Such awareness may make it possible to prevent or to at least alleviate these hazards

 

b. Hazards of developmental tasks

● Because developmental tasks play an important role in setting guidelines for normal development, anything that interferes with their mastery may be regarded as a potential hazard. There are three very common potential hazards related to developmental tasks.

● The first is inappropriate expectations; either individuals themselves or the social group may expect the development of behavior that is impossible at the time because of physical or psychological limitations.

● A second potential hazard is the bypassing of a stage of development as a result of failure to master the tasks for that stage of development. The third common potential hazard arising from developmental tasks is the crises individuals experience when they pass from one stage

 

● Even though an individual may have mastered the developmental tasks for one age satisfactorily, having to master a new set of tasks appropriate for the next stage inevitably brings with it tension and stress that can lead to a crisis. For example, men whose working lives have come to an end often experience a 'retirement crisis, in which they feel that prestige associated with the job have also come to an end.

● Sooner or later all people become aware that they are expected to master certain developmental tasks at various periods during their lives. Each individual also becomes being 'early', 'late', or 'on time' with regard to these tasks. It is this awareness that affect their own attitude of others towards them.

● Although most people would like to master developmental tasks at the appropriate time, some are unable to do so, while others are ahead of schedule.

● The following gives some of the most important factors that influence mastery of developmental task asks

 

Factors Influencing Mastery Of Developmental Tasks

Handicaps to Mastery Aids to Mastery

● Retarded developmental level

● Lack of guidance in mastering developmental tasks

● Lack of motivation

● Poor health

● Physical defects

● Low intellectual level

● Absence of creativity ● Normal developmental level

● Enough opportunities to learn the developmental tasks

● Enough motivation

● Good health

● Absence of physical defects

● High intellectual level

● Presence of creativity

 

● Regardless of the cause, there are two serious consequences of failure to master developmental tasks. One is that unfavourable social judgments are inevitable; members of the individual's peer group regard him as immature, a label which carries a stigma at any age. This leads to unfavourable self-judgments, which in turn lead to unfavourable concepts of self. Another consequence is that the foundations for the mastery of later developmental tasks are inadequate.

● As a result, individuals continue to lag behind their peers, an this increases their feelings of inadequacy. Equally serious, they must try to master developmental tasks appropriate for the next stages of development at the same time that they are trying to complete the mastery of the tasks appropriate for the age leve

from which they have just emerged.

● Children who are unprepared to enter school will find that their attempts to catch up to their age-mates only intensity their feelings inadequacy and reinforce judgments of their immaturity

 

Part A (Each question carries 2 marks)

1. What is developmental principles ?

2. Write about developmental needs of various stages.

3. What is developmental task ?

4. Write about developmental hazards.

5. Point out 4 major developmental principles.

 

Part B (Each question carries 4 marks)

1. Write a short note on developmental hazards

2. What is developmental tasks, write a short note on its, tasks of each stage

3. Write a short note on principles of development

 

Part C (Each question carries 10 marks)

1. Write an essay on developmental tasks

2. Write an essay on developmental hazards

3. Write an essay on developmental needs of various stages

 

Unit 4

ADOLESCENCE - PROBLEMS AND COMPLEXITIES

 

ADOLESCENCE -PROBLEMS AND COMPLEXITIES

Problems of adolescence

*Perplexity with regard to somatic variation

*Problems related with intensification of self-consciousness

*Adjustment difficulties with parents

*Childhood-Adulthood conflict

*Adjustment difficulties with school discipline

*Adjustment difficulties with community

 

Broken families

A child suddenly loses a parent, either through death, abandonment, or a prolonged separation, the child experiences intense fear, panic, grief (a combination of sadness and loss), depression, helplessness and hopelessness. The child has lost his lifeline, and often his sense of self

 

Parenting style

The quality of parenting is more essential than the quantity spend with the child. Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children. Parenting practices are specific behaviour, While parenting style represent broader patterns of parenting practices. Diana Baumrind emphasizes 4 styles of parenting that are associated with different aspects of the adolescents social behaviour- Authoritarian, Authoritative, Neglectful and Indulgent

 

1- Authoritarian parenting

*Limit and controls on the adolescent and allow little verbal exchange .

*Authoritarian parenting is associated with adolescents socially incompetent behavior.

*Authoritarian parents often are anxious about social comparison, fail to initiate activity, and have poor communication skills

 

2) Authoritative parenting

*Encourages adolescents to be independent but still places limits and control on their action

*Authoritative parenting is associated with adolescents socially competent behaviour

*Self -reliant and social responsible.

3) Neglectful parenting

*It associated with adolescents socially incompetent behaviour, especially lack of self control

*They show poor self-control and do not handle independence well.

 

4) Indulge parenting

*Indulge parents allow their adolescents to do what they want,and the result is that the adolescents never learn to control their own behaviour and always expect to get their way

*Indulge parenting associated with adolescents social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control

 

RECENT ISSUES RELATED TO

ADOLESCENTS

1-Changing family structure

A child's learning and socialization are most influenced by their family since the family is the child's primary social group. Child development happens physically, emotionally, socially, and intellectually during this time. Family structure substantially influences outcomes such as high school dropout rates, high school graduation rates, and age at first pregnancy. For example, young people from non-intact families are significantly more likely to drop out of school, compared to students living in intact families.

 

I. Cause of changing family structure

-Divorce, remarriage, cohabitation and birth outside marriage

-family instability and parental conflict

-socio -economic conditions

-multiple transition

-Verbal fighting and physical abuse

 

II. Effects of changing family structure

⮚ -Lower academic engagement,poor cognitive achievement,and more behaviour and emotional problems.

⮚ -Difficulty in sustaining a quality parent -child relationship are the physical separation of divorce

⮚ -Diminished parental involvement of the non residential parent

⮚ -Depressed mood of adolescents impacting their social relations and performance abilities

⮚ -Parents delinquent and illegal behaviour is associated adolescents behavioural problem

 

III. Treatment of issues related to

changing family structure

⮚ -Maintaining a family structure that will provide the optimal benefit for adolescent development

⮚ -Effective parental involvement and monitoring contributing to avoidance of unhealthy risk behaviours.

⮚ -Exercise good family processes,such a high quality parent- child relationship and low parental conflict for the well being of adolescent children

⮚ -Enhanced parent-child emotional ties

⮚ -Proper guidance and counseling both at home and educational institutions would enable adolescents to overcome the problems

 

2-PEER INFLUENCES

Peer influence is the influence a peer group has on its members to fit into a particular way of thinking and behaving .This influence increases as child and young people grow older than reach adolescence.

I. Positive peer influence

*Avoiding acting in a negative or anti-social manner

*Participating in group sporting or social activity

*Developing new skill with a group of their friends

*Working on a school or university project together

 

II. Negative peer influence

*Pressure to try drug including alcohol or cigarette

*Pressure to have sex ,either by a partner or friends

*Illegal behaviours such as speeding or shoplifting

*Cheating on test,copying assignments or letting others copy their work

*Skipping school or collage for the day to do something else with friends

III. Cause of peer influences

*Fear of loneliness

*Desire for acceptance

*Poor stress management

*Poor decision making skill

*To avoid the risk of bullying

 

IV. Effect of peer influence

⮚ Peer pressure is defined as the impact of social group has on an individual.

⮚ The credibility, authority, power and influence of peers are greater during adolescence than at any other time in life.

⮚ Peer pressure can bring about positive as well as negative changes in adolescents.

 

Positive changes

*Learn how to be independent

*Have a safe place to meet like -minded individuals

*Take positive risk and test out values and opinion of others

*Test out their strength and limitations

*Feel safe boost their self-confidence.

Negative changes

*Suffer from the loss of their individuality

*Coercive and conflicting relationship confer developmental disadvantages

*Perceived and conflicting relationship confer developmental disadvantages

*Adolescents begin to seek more independence from their parents and careers

 

V. Treatment of issues related to peer

influence

*Always keep open communication between parent and child.try to be open and open -minded when discussing peer-related issues with adolescents

*Encourage adolescent children to choose their friends wisely

*Teach young people how to be assertive in a respectful but firm way

*Support adolescents to be confident and true to themselves and show them you care.

*To overcome peer influence,feeling of loneliness ,suicidal ideation

,and any other contributing factors to suicide, adolescents must be resilient.

 

3 - INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

According to social learning theory ,children and adolescents learn by observing and imitating what they see on the screen , particularly when these behaviours seem realistic or are rewarded .

I.Impact of emerging social media

Parents, teachers, health professionals,and other adults have been concerned about the influence of the media on children and adolescents for many decades

 

1- Positive Impacts

● Social media foster socialisation and well being of adolescents

● Develop technical and creative skills

● International link provide greater understanding of global issues

● Positive effect on social skills in children

● Rapid access of information ,gaming,and instant communication

● Enhancing education through various media interfaces

 

2.Negative impact

● Problem internet use (PIU)or internet addiction

● Negative impact on schooling ,work, relationship or general well being and health

● Sexualization of children leading to mental illnesses such as depression , anxiety and suicide

● Aggression,sexual behaviour ,substance use, disordered eating and academic difficulties

● Bullying,harassing,antisocial beliefs and behaviour

● Sexual predatory activity by adults on adolescent children

● Greater portability of media ,promote greater risk

 

Treatment of impact of media, internet, mobile

● Parents should be more cognizant about childrens media time,co -view media with their children and discuss the content

● Help adolescents to learn how to distinguish messages that designed to sell products, messages that are products in themselves, and message that are product in themselves, and messages that are informative or entertaining

● Guide children and adolescents to media messages that encourage safety and good health and away from messages that promote unhealthy or high risk behaviours

 

4 - SEXUAL ABUSE

Child sexual abuse is a phenomenon linked to general attitudes and practices toward children and also to the ways sexual relationships are organised and regulated in a particular society

Child or adolescent sexual abuse may be broadly defined as both direct sexual contact and indirect interactions such such as 'exposure' or internet based activity like sending of electronic sexual images to minors

 

Causes of sexual abuse

● An atmosphere of silence and poor communication around sexuality contributes to child sexual abuse

● Physical ,emotional ,or cognitive disabilities

● Living in households charectorised by instability, interpersonal conflict,and other form of abuse

● Pseudo-affection ,dominating and sadistic behaviours

● Socially deprived and disorganised family and childhood backgrounds

 

Effects of sexual abuse

● Child sexual abuse contributes to health disparities and numerous adverse health conditions.

● Attachment problems that affects relationships and intimacy

● Child sexual abuse in lowering self esteem in adults

● Learning and development problems

● Drug and alcohol abuse and suicide

 

Treatment to issues related to sexual abuse

● School based prevention programs that teach avoidance skills to youth show evidence that youth empowerment and safety can be increased ,and also helo reduce stigma and self blame for sexually abuse youth

 

5.SUBSTANCE ABUSE

The process of adolescence and developmental factors such as increased sensitivity to immediate towards, a focus on peer and social rewards,immature inhibitory and self regulatory process,increased risk taking and sensation seeking ,and difficulty with mood regulation affect the trajectories that lead to substance abuse and addiction